Critically evaluate the conceptual and theoretical Essays

Critically evaluate the conceptual and theoretical Essays Critically evaluate the conceptual and theoretical Essay Critically evaluate the conceptual and theoretical Essay 1.It seems no consideration of terrorist act s definition can get down without the statement: One adult male s terrorist is another adult male s freedom combatant, ( Laqueur, 1987:302 ) . And this statement seems to be at the bosom of what many consider to be the job with supplying a definition of terrorist act: it all depends on position. Surely specifying terrorist act has neer been a more of import or necessary exercising, with many political groups and administrations around the universe holding to cover with terrorist activity, there is an of all time greater demand to understand its nature. A definition of terrorist act is required, among other grounds, to implement international Torahs, to guarantee international cooperation and make up ones mind on violative action ( Ganor, 2002 ) . The sheer scope of definitions of terrorist act is possibly best illustrated by Schmidt and Jongman ( 1988 ) who cite 109 different definitions. By analyzing these definitions for significances, it is possible to name the factors most normally found to be of import. Force or force appears in 83.5 % of definitions, a political motive is in 65 % , reference of panic or fright is in 51 % , menaces in 47 % . The staying classs include psychological effects, differences between the victims and the marks and planned actions. Why the confusion? How is it possible that merely 65 % of definitions contain reference of political motive when it is normally cardinal to terrorist activity? Possibly the reply lies in the gap quotation mark from Laqueur ( 1987 ) that it all depends on the position. Ganor ( 2002 ) points to the evident duality sometimes set up in the literature between national release and terrorist act. While national release has been considered a justified terminal to contend for, can terrorism truly be used as a justified agencies? Again, it all depends on position. From Syria s official place, it does non back up terrorist act but does back up national release. Unfortunately, the agencies it uses to accomplish this terminal are considered by many to be terrorist act. Possibly underlying Syria s place, like that of the Irish Republican Army ( IRA ) is what Taylor ( 1988 ) considers the moral justification. The moral justification can be used by both authoritiess and independent administration to warrant actions that might otherwise look similar to terrorist Acts of the Apostless ( Ruby, 2002 ) . This clearly raises one of the cardinal jobs in the definition of terrorist act, over which much attempt has been expended in the literature: should terrorism be defined by its agencies or its ends? Garrison ( 2004 ) comes down strongly on the side of ends, reasoning that terrorist act should be defined by its effort to consequence a alteration in society by utilizing panic. Garrison ( 2004 ) sees terrorist act as a tool that is used by many different groups and, in that sense, does non let differentiations to be made between these groups. To do differentiations it is necessary to see terrorist act s purpose. In this definition so, the targeting of civilians is non a necessary and sufficient status for placing terrorist act ( Garrison, 2004 ) . An alternate point of view focal points on the agencies of terrorist activity to specify terrorist act ( Cooper, 2001 ) . Ganor ( 2002 ) points out that a terrorist and a freedom combatant may hold the same ends, but they are pursued in different manners. Here, so, aiming civilians becomes the cardinal point of definition. Concentrating on the act itself makes a bunk of the word picture made between national release and terrorist act in its ultimate purposes. Alternatively Ganor ( 2002 ) negotiations of the different types of unconventional warfare usually carried out between a province and an administration of some signifier. When an administration contending against the province onslaughts military marks, that is guerrilla warfare, when the administration attacks non-military marks, that is terrorist act. This means that freedom combatants, revolutionists and nihilists could be either terrorists or legitimate battlers involved in guerilla warfare. To what extent are these definitions dichotomous? Clearly they are non one stresses political terminals, and the other stresses the agencies. Each efforts to except the other s definition to a certain extent, while admiting its legitimacy to some extent. Legal systems around the universe, nevertheless, do non hold the luxury of this elusiveness. This means that some states use political or spiritual terminals in specifying terrorist act and some focal point on the Acts of the Apostless carried out ( Ramraj, Hor A ; Roach, 2005 ) . The troubles in specifying terrorist act can be made even clearer when sing how definitions are frequently either over- or under-inclusive ( Shanahan, 2005 ) . Is a terrorist ever a radical? Shanahan ( 2005 ) points out they many authoritiess may perpetrate terrorist Acts of the Apostless to stay in power. Terrorists frequently attack both military and non-military marks, thereby doing loss of life and hurt to both civilian and non-civilian marks. Shanahan ( 2005 ) even argues that onslaughts on military forces can be Acts of the Apostless of terrorist act. Further, definitions of terrorist act in footings of menaces to life and limb do non include harm to belongings. Even more bewilderingly, it is non ever possible to separate between alleged combatants and non-combatants . In decision, specifying terrorist act is so hard, one author who has been analyzing it for many old ages has resorted to explicating that we know terrorist act when we see it ( Cooper, 2001 ) . While this may be true, from an international legal position this subjective definition is non sufficient. In world, different groups cleaving to definitions of terrorist act that suit their political intents. Academicians have tried to umpire this definitional brawl, with some limited success. Some strong definitions of terrorist act have been distilled, but the existent litmus trial is whether these can be universally adopted. Sing the utmost troubles in definition illustrated by the easiness of over-inclusive or under-inclusive classs, cosmopolitan acceptance of a definition of terrorist act seems improbable. 2.Northern Ireland foremost came into being as a consequence of guerilla warfare by the Irish Republican Army ( IRA ) in the 1920s. The IRA was contending against Britain to make a province independent of the UK. In 1921 the Anglo-Irish Treaty was signed which partitioned Ireland into a southern independent democracy and Northern Ireland, each with their ain authoritiess. Publicly, the UK authorities saw the divider as an ineluctable move designed to avoid a civil war. The IRA continued their run to seek to throw out the British authorities from Northern Ireland. But, this had small consequence and until 1968 the UK authorities did non interfere with the Northern Irish authorities ( White A ; White, 1995 ) . While the IRA continued to run between 1920 and the mid-1960s, they were made illegal in the 1930s and merely carried out sporadic runs over that clip ( Thane, 2001 ) . It was nt until the late sixtiess that the IRA all of a sudden rose to unprecedented prominence. In the 1960s a mostly peaceable motion for civil rights began to develop ( White A ; White, 1995 ) . Analogues have been drawn between this rise of feeling and the civil rights motion in the US ( McGarry, 2001 ) . The Irish run originally centred on deriving rights for Catholics life in Northern Ireland. Through the 1960s tensenesss rose as the runs met opposition from the Royal Ulster Constabulary and Protestant demonstrators. Finally the British ground forces was mobilised in 1969 to assist squelch public perturbations. Over the following few old ages force exploded and the Irish authorities failed to maintain it under control. An of import factor in the rise of the IRA was a split that occurred in 1970 in the IRA from which the Provisional IRA emerged as the more violent and hawkish wing. One of the Irish authorities s last actions was to present internment in August 1971, an act designed to incarcerate those thought to be members of the IRA. The IRA, nevertheless, maintained that in this monolithic operation to collar 342 people, merely 30 were existent IRA members ( Mulholland, 2003 ) . The event to force the state of affairs over the border was Bloody Sunday 1972 when the British ground forces shooting dead 14 unarmed demonstrators. Mulholland ( 2003 ) argues that this lead to the prostration of resistance to political force. Soon afterwards the UK authorities efficaciously reimposed direct regulation and the Irish Parliament was dissolved. After this, the IRA saw a monolithic rise in its rank, particularly from within the Official IRA, and units in Northern Ireland ( Smith, 1995 ) . The ground for the rise in the IRA s power has been examined in several different ways. Many have focussed on the sudden public groundswell of sentiment that force was non merely justified, but required. White ( 1989 ) has suggested the causes of the societal revolution which the IRA made manifest prevarication in the mobilization position. The traditional position is that economic inequalities result in rebellion, but the mobilization position puts greater accent on the costs and benefits of action, reasoning that people s grudges remain comparatively stable. Turning to Ireland in the 1970s, several factors are seen to be of import in the changing manner people view guerilla warfare. White ( 1989 ) argues that it is province repression which can be seen with the British ground forces and internment that makes people place an unfairness. Second, people believe that others feel the same manner and, eventually, they decide that force is possible and it will be effectual. White ( 1989 ) finds support for this thesis in his interviews with political militant, indexing of bombardments and shots carried out in Derry every bit good as steps of economic want. Further grounds for this thesis, specifically concentrating on province repression was found in a survey carried out by White and White ( 1995 ) . They found two dimensions of province repression. The first is official repression, an illustration of which is the internment. The 2nd is informal province repression, as carried out by the British ground forces. This theory goes portion manner to explicating the rapid rise of the IRA, but the point has been made by Bell ( 1973 ) that the state of affairs had been ripe for a revolution in Ireland for 50 old ages, so why did it non get down until 1969? Many causes were involved: foremost, the civil rights run lowered people s tolerance of subjugation. Second, the British ground forces, through their actions, lost regard in Catholic eyes. Third, the security forces did non look able to maintain control. Fourth, there seemed to be an advantage at that place, if merely person could take it. For Catholics, while Stormont was non legitimate, it had at least been able to exert authorization in the yesteryear. This was no longer the instance. For all these chief grounds, people began to take their support for the British ground forces and travel it over to the IRA ( Bell, 1973 ) . In decision, there were a figure of different factors that affected the rise of the IRA between 1969 and 1974. There was a reduced belief by members of the Irish community that the official governments could maintain control of a state of affairs gyrating into force. This was combined with a turning belief the costs of an rebellion were outweighed by the likely benefits. Increasing degrees of force were spurred by lifting degrees of repression directed against the people by the authorities. A mobilization position leads to the thought that these influences, along with others, turned public sentiment in favor of the IRA. This displacement in sentiment led to a big addition in IRA rank, which allowed it to well increase its operations to the extent that, by 1974, it had become one of the strongest terrorist groups in Western Europe. Mentions Bell, J. ( 1973 ) . The Escalation of Insurgency: The Provisional Irish Republican Army s Experience, 1969-1971.The Review of Politics, 35( 3 ) , 398-411. Cooper, H. ( 2001 ) . Terrorism: The Problem of Definition Revisited.American Behavioral Scientist, 44( 6 ) , 881-893. Ganor, B. ( 2002 ) . Specifying Terrorism: Is One Man s Terrorist another Man s Freedom Fighter?Police Practice and Research, 3( 4 ) , 287-304. Garrison, A. ( 2004 ) . Specifying terrorist act: doctrine of the bomb, propaganda by title and alteration through fright and force. Criminal Justice Studies: A Critical Journal of Crime, Law and Society, 17( 3 ) , 259-279. Laqueur, W. ( 1987 ) .The Age of Terrorism. Toronto: Small, Brown and Company. McGarry, J. ( 2001 ) .The Northern Ireland and the Divided Universe: Post-agreement Northern Ireland in Comparative Perspective. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Mulholland, M. ( 2003 )Northern Ireland: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ramraj, V. , Hor, M. , A ; Roach, K. ( 2005 ) . Introduction. In: V. Ramraj, M. Hor, A ; K. Roach ( Eds. ) .Global anti-terrorism jurisprudence and policy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ruby, C. ( 2002 ) . The Definition of Terrorism.Analysiss of Social Issues and Public Policy, 2( 1 ) , 9-14. Schmidt, A. P. , A ; Jongman, A. I. ( 1988 ) .Political Terrorism: A New Guide to Actors, Writers, Concepts, Data Bases, Theories, and Literature. North-Holland: Transaction Books. Shanahan, T. ( 2005 ) .Doctrine 9/11: Thinking about the War on Terrorism. Chicago, IL: Open Court. Smith, M. L. R. ( 1995 ) .Contending for Ireland? The military scheme of the Irish Republican Movement. Oxford: Routledge. Taylor, M. ( 1988 ) .The Terrorist. London: Brassey s Defence Publishers. Thane, P. ( 2001 )Cassell Dictionary of Twentieth Century Britain. London: Cassell Reference. White, R. ( 1989 ) . From Peaceful Protest to Guerrilla War: Micromobilization of the Provisional Irish Republican Army.The American Journal of Sociology, 94( 6 ) , 1277-1302. White, R. , A ; White, T. ( 1995 ) . Repression and the Broad State: The Case of Northern Ireland, 1969-1972.The Journal of Conflict Resolution, 39( 2 ) , 330-352.

The Easy Trick to Convert Celsius to Fahrenheit

The Easy Trick to Convert Celsius to Fahrenheit SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips In every science class, you must know how to use and interpret the Celsius temperature scale. But this can be difficult for students who are used to using Fahrenheit instead. How do you convert Celsius to Fahrenheit? What about Fahrenheit to Celsius? We answer these questions below, giving you the mathematical formulas for converting between these two temperature units, a handy conversion chart, and a quick conversion trick you can use without having to grab a calculator. Celsius vs Fahrenheit: Key Differences Before we explain how to convert Celsius to Fahrenheit (and Fahrenheit to Celsius), let’s review the main differences between the two temperature scales. Celsius (written as  °C and also called Centigrade) is the most common temperature scale in the world, used by all but five countries. It’s part of the International System of Units (SI), or what you might know as the metric system, which is typically used in science classes (think centimeters, meters, kilograms, milliliters, etc.) and in science as a whole. By contrast, Fahrenheit (written as  °F) is only used officially by five countries in the world: United States Belize Cayman Islands Palau Bahamas Fahrenheit is not part of the metric system; rather, it’s part of the Imperial system, which includes forms of measurements such as inches, feet, pounds, gallons, etc. Moreover, unlike Celsius, it is not typically used in science. Celsius to Fahrenheit Formula Unfortunately, converting from Celsius to Fahrenheit isn’t easy to do quickly or in your head. Here are the formulas used to convert Celsius to Fahrenheit and Fahrenheit to Celsius. These formulas will give you the exact conversion from one unit of temperature to the other: Celsius to Fahrenheit Formula: ( °C * 1.8) + 32 =  °F Fahrenheit to Celsius Formula: ( °F - 32) / 1.8 =  °C For example, say the temperature outside is 18  °C and you want to know what this would equal in Fahrenheit. Here’s how your equation would look once you plug in 18 for  °C: (18 * 1.8) + 32(32.4) + 32=64.4  °F Here’s another example if you want to convert Fahrenheit to Celsius: say you’re feeling ill and your body temperature is 101.3  °F. To find out what this equals in Celsius, simply plug 101.3 into the  °F part in the second equation written above: (101.3 - 32) / 1.8 (69.3) / 1.8=38.5  °C As you can see, these conversions aren’t particularly hard to carry out, but they do take some time and aren’t the easiest to do without a calculator on hand. Luckily, there’s a shortcut. By memorizing some of the most common temperatures that come up in daily life, you should have no problem being able to convert from Celsius to Fahrenheit and vice versa. We’ll take a look at how to do this next. It's gettin' hot in here. Celsius to Fahrenheit Conversion Chart Below is a conversion chart listing some of the most commonly used temperatures in everyday life when converting from Celsius to Fahrenheit. Memorize these and you’re sure to have an easier time converting from Celsius to Fahrenheit (and vice versa) fast. Note: I’ve bolded all temperatures that don’t apply to weather but are still important to know, especially for science class. Temperature in Celsius ( °C) Temperature in Fahrenheit ( °F) Boiling Point of Water 100 212 Extremely Hot Day 40 104 Body Temperature 37 98.6 Hot Day 30 86 Room Temperature 20 68 Chilly Day 10 50 Freezing Point of Water 0 32 Very Cold Day -10 14 Extremely Cold Day -20 -4 Parity* -40 -40 Source: NIST.gov *The point at which the two temperature units are equivalent (-40  °C = -40  °F). As you can see from this chart, Fahrenheit temperatures are typically a lot higher than their equivalent Celsius temperatures are. Also, notice how the difference between Celsius and Fahrenheit starts to get smaller the lower you go in temperature- until, that is, they're the exact same! As the chart indicates, -40  °C is the same temperature as -40  °F. This point is called parity, meaning the two scales use the same value to represent the same temperature. Unfortunately (or fortunately, since this is pretty cold!), you likely won’t come across this temperature in your daily life. Note that parity only happens at -40 °. The lower you go after parity (i.e., the further you go into the negatives), the bigger the difference starts to become again between Celsius and Fahrenheit. How to Convert Celsius to Fahrenheit: Quick Trick If you find yourself needing to quickly convert Celsius to Fahrenheit, here is a simple trick you can use: multiply the temperature in degrees Celsius by 2, and then add 30 to get the (estimated) temperature in degrees Fahrenheit. This rule of thumb is really useful and also pretty accurate for most weather-related temperatures. For example, if the temperature outside is 15  °C, this would come out to around 60  °F: (15 * 2) + 30(30) + 30= 60  °F (In reality, 15  °C is equivalent to 59  °F- that’s pretty close!) Of course, expect the actual temperature to be a few degrees off, but for the most part, this is a reliable and easy way to convert temperatures in your head fast. If you want to convert Fahrenheit to Celsius, do the opposite: subtract 30 from the temperature in degrees Fahrenheit, and then divide by 2 to get the temperature in degrees Celsius. For example, if the temperature outside is 84  °F, this would be roughly equal to 27  °C: (84 - 30) / 254 / 2= 27  °C (In reality, 84  °F is equivalent to 28.89  °C- again, that’s a pretty close estimate!). What’s Next? Are you studying clouds in your science class? Get help identifying the different types of clouds with our expert guide. Now that you know how to convert Celsius to Fahrenheit, the next question to answer is what kinds of spiders live in what sorts of climates? Learn more with our articles about camel spider myths and reasons not to fear the garden spider. Want even more practice with conversions? (Who wouldn't?) Learn how many cups 4 quarts is here. Working on a research paper but aren't sure where to start? Then check out our guide, where we've collected tons of high-quality research topics you can use for free. Need help with English class- specifically with identifying literary devices in texts you read? Then you'll definitely want to take a look at our comprehensive explanation of the most important literary devices and how they're used. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points? We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

Paradoxically, although modernity appeared to be a threat to Essay - 2

Paradoxically, although modernity appeared to be a threat to Christianity, it had been nurtured, in significant part, by Christianity itself - Essay Example Presumably, the threat to Christianity was associated to secular world view supported by modernity. Research shows that modernity is dominated by secular world view. The enlightenment era and the birth of modern science affected the reality of Christianity. The modernity concept suggests that is the physical world, made of energy and matter. The modern world view argues that the world is a closed system of cause and effect. It also perceives the real world to have space and time. The breathtaking achievements of science caused the western world to be impressed by the idea of modernity, science and technology. Reality has been reduced to space and time. This has made the concept of Christianity and faith doubtful has hard to grasp . Modernity has caused facts to replace the truth. This means that any proclamation of faith must be verifiable through facts or historical evidence. However, the premise of the faith in Jesus tends to suggests realities that are beyond scientific confines o f verification. A telling example is the case of mystical experiences, prayers, healing, visions and dreams. The Christian faith is inclusive and universal in terms of the requirements of becoming a faithful . The promise of faith is the same despite the background or culture setup of the believer. Studies show that qualitative change or evolution is a characteristic of modern religion. This means that development of modern religion has come through evolutionary stages just like science. Given that religion preceded science, it is evident that Christianity nurtured modernity to a significant extent3. The theories of cultural evolution and religion show that religious change does not necessarily indicate a decline of religious influence. Rather, it is a central aspect of Christian religion. History shows that Christianity evolution was not exclusive to culture. Christianity emphasizes the difference between the natural world and the supernatural world. This does not necessarily refut e the scientific gains in the natural world. Rather, Christianity insists of a truth greater than the sensual approach. The nature of science is also evolutionary. This means that science has got a striking similarity with Christianity when it comes to changes and developmental advancement. However, the fundamentals of Christianity do not change. The teachings of the Lord Jesus Christ are the inspiration behind the conduct and morals of every believer4. Science tends to be solution oriented. Most scientific solutions meet have no supernatural bearing. To a certain extent, religious symbols do not necessarily contradict secular world achievements. However, Christianity represents a deeper supernatural understanding of life. The concept of evolution, flexibility and change that is espoused by the scientific world is likely to have been heavily borrowed from Christianity5. The modern day ways of thinking and sensing may not be absolute. The overdependence of common realities that can b e relied upon by the senses is not entirely representative. This means that the common realities can be represented by science effectively. However, the higher common objects like wisdom and truth cannot be fully addressed by modernity and may be prove that God exists. According to the concept of notion of will, sight affects our understanding and perception of desire. This means that Christianity has the capability to nurture changes and perceptions. The notion suggests that the doctrine of will indicates the ability of human being to choose. This

Mediation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Mediation - Essay Example The mediator listens to the different versions of all the parties and calms or reassures them accordingly. The mediator should have active listening skills for this stage to be successful. During this stage, the mediator clarifies statements and questions so that the parties involved understand each other. He or she may also paraphrase the stories given by the parties. The third stage is the agenda setting stage. In this stage, the mediator outlines the issues that require a solution. He or she sets the agenda for the process by summarizing the disagreements or agreements between the parties. The purpose of mediation is to resolve these disagreements in an unbiased way (Drews 44). The fourth stage is the generation of alternatives stage. The mediator employs his or her skills to generate a series of possible options for the parties (Drews 44). He or she may also guide the parties in generating alternatives. In the fifth stage, the mediator asks the parties to choose among the generated alternatives. He or she guides the parties in selecting alternatives that are satisfactory and feasible to them all. The sixth stage is ending stage. In this stage, the mediator writes the agreement as agreed by all parties. A mediation process normally involves three people. The first person is the mediator. The second and third persons are the two warring parties. However, the process may also have â€Å"support people† who assist in signing the agreements. Concluding a mediation process is the last stage of a mediation process. In case a solution is reached, the mediator concludes the process by writing an agreement that is signed by all the parties. However, if the process is not fruitful to come up with a solution, the mediator summarizes the issues raised and thanks the parties for their contributions and making progress. He then ends the session. The first advantage of

Collision Course †NEOs Essay Example for Free

Collision Course – NEOs Essay When looking at the Earth in the Solar System, there are many fascinating objects, and also many dangerous ones. NEOs, or Near Earth Objects are constantly being studied to determine the actual possibility of collision with the Earth. Most NEOs consist of meteors, meteorites, comets and asteroids. Though most of the objects are too small to cause any sort of substantial damage, there are a few that are capable of causing the next major extinction. In order for an object to be considered a NEO, it must be within 1. 3 AUs (or astronomical units) from the Sun. 1.3 AU is the same as about 93 million miles. The NEOs are objects that have been bumped by the gravity of other planets which let them get close to the Earths orbit.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   One of the major groups of NEOs are meteoroids. The term meteor is actually used to describe the streak of visible light after its trip through the Earths orbit. One of the most famous craters, which   is like a giant scar caused by a NEO hitting the Earth, is in Arizona. Meteor Crater, or Barringer Meteorite Crater as it is also known as, is a jarring reminder of what kind of damage a NEO can do upon impact. Most meteors are small enough that once they are pulled in by the Earths orbit and hit the atmosphere, they burn up and disintegrate before they ever get the chance to actually hit the Earths surface.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Another group of NEOs are asteroids. One of the largest asteroids that astronomers keep their eyes on is Apophis. This giant is due to hit the Earth in 2036. The size of Apophis is estimated to be a bit larger then the Rose Bowl, and if it were to hit the Earth would cause global damage. If it hits the ocean, the damage occurring from the huge tsunamis by themselves would be catastrophic.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Another class of objects that are visible to the naked eye are comets. When speaking of them as NEOs, then they are considered to be old comet nuclei whose perihelia are less then 1.3 AU from the Sun. One comet in particular that has been known through history is Halleys Comet. Also, the trail of cosmic dust, or tail of the comet can also be passed through by the Earth.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In conclusion, NASA is taking steps to try and diminish the risk of being hit by a NEO by continually watching and cataloging the orbits and behaviors of NEOs. What remedies that have been looked at so far to try and deal with the risk of being hit is to explode nuclear weapons near the object to try and change its course. Other considerations that have been looked at is sending high-speed ballistic missiles towards the object to make an impact, or to send a hovering spacecraft to pull the object into a different orbit, thereby allowing it to miss the Earth altogether. The future for watching NEOs is strongly backed now more then ever before. Washington has allowed a $4 million dollar budget for listing potential and real threats to the Earth, and sent a new report to congress in March 2007. Considering the probability that the Earth will be hit again, as it has been hit in the past requires that the scientific community take heed of the risk, and not only be able to prepare the world for such a catastrophe, but be able to prevent it as well. References http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/multimedia/neo/index.cfm http://www.nasa.gov/centers/hq/home/index.html http://newton.dm.unipi.it/cgi-bin/neodys/neoibo?info:0;faq#nea

Adopt a Child :: Essays research papers, Adoption

Adopt-A-Child, Inc., is a licensed, non-profit adoption agency dedicated to the ideal of bringing together couples or individuals seeking to build their families with foreign-born infants or children who need homes. The children we identify for adoption have been irrevocably released by their parents or other relatives due to death or abandonment. These youngsters are orphans according to U.S. and international legal definitions. Therefore, in accordance with the laws of both countries concerned, they are fully available for adoption. Our staff of trained social workers have completed numerous adoptions with couples and individuals throughout the United States and with U.S. citizens abroad. We support and educate our clients, empowering them to make the best decision for their particular situations. Our focus throughout the process is on social service, to ensure the best possible adjustment of children and parents to their new families. Adopt-A-Child has developed a strong network of relationships with adoption officials in many foreign countries, gaining a reputation for unquestionable reliability and integrity. In each of these countries we have developed a trained, experienced and well-supervised staff with whom we communicate closely, and are able to direct via phone, fax, and e-mail. We also make regular visits to the countries from which we adopt in order to monitor operations, visit orphanages and to meet with adoption officials. We are a full-service agency providing not only adoption assistance but also pre- and post-adoption support counseling. Among our services, we maintain a very active parents network to provide a forum for education, socialization, recreation and mutual support.

“Island Man” and “The Fringe Of The Sea” Essay

I recently read two poems entitled â€Å"Island Man† and â€Å"The Fringe Of The Sea†. They are both similar in theme, but they also have many differences. Both poems are based on the emotions of people who live near the sea and their feelings towards it. This theme relates to both of the authors, and connects them; the author of â€Å"The Fringe Of The Sea†, A.L. Hendricks, was born in Jamaica and later in life moved to Britain. Grace Nichols, author of â€Å"Island Man†, was born in Ghana and then also immigrated to the UK. Grace Nichols’ poem â€Å"Island Man† is about a Caribbean man who lives in London, but still longs for his home and the sea. The poem follows the man as he wakes in the morning to the memories of his home in the Caribbean and the sound of the sea in his head. I believe that the main theme of the poem is that home is important and it will always be with you no matter what. There is also a strong theme of reluctance coming from â€Å"Island Man† to move on with his life and leave his past behind. His unwillingness to get up in the morning can also be viewed as a strong metaphor of his reluctance to leave his past behind. An interesting concept played on in the poem is that it takes place when â€Å"Island Man† wakes up – leaving him in the state of being half asleep and half awake. This gives the author the ability to let you guess which parts of the poem are the reality, dreams and memories of his life – using this the author can entangle them together. A good example of this is the line â€Å"his crumpled pillow waves† – it shows the reality (his crumpled pillow) and as he is half awake and half asleep his dreams and memories view the crumples in the pillow as â€Å"waves†. The theme of identity is also strong in the poem. â€Å"Island Man† is never given a name so that he can also be seen as a symbol of the people who have moved from their home countries and felt like they have lost part of themselves; their identity. Therefore â€Å"Island Man† can be seen as a representative of  these people, and so I believe that they will relate with the character – this also fits in to the background of the author, Grace Nichols, so it is possible she did this so that she relates to the character. The Island in â€Å"Island Man† could also be a way of showing his emotions, e.g. he is an isolated or lonely man trapped on an emotional island. The poem is also written in free verse, with no sentence structure or full stops. This suggests the idea of no restrictions and freedom, just like the Caribbean is for Island Man, compared to his London life. Just before the poem starts there is information in parenthesis, this helps set the scene by giving a little information telling you what the poem is about. As soon as you begin reading the poem it is obvious that the poem is written in a first person narrative rather than a third person narrative. I believe the reason for this would be because with a third person narrative it is distanced from the character, whilst with a first person one you can sympathize with the character and you could also identify with them. The first line â€Å"Morning† has more than just the surface meaning here, it also seems to be a pun on the word â€Å"Mourning† to suggest sadness in Island Man. More evidence for this is that the word is on its own in the line, this could be meaning loneliness, which is generally related to sadness. The word could also be viewed as a way of showing a new start, as mornings are a new start for every day, it could also be a metaphor for a new beginning in Island Man’s life. This new start would be Island Man leaving home and starting his new life in London. The next line â€Å"and Island Man wakes up† shows that the character of Island Man has no name as he is referred to without a using a name. This suggests that he may feel like he has no identity after leaving a large part of his life behind in the Caribbean. Line three and four are a change from the previous two as we begin to see a strong rhythm forming. The line is as follows – â€Å"to the sound of blue surf / in his head in is head† although these are two separate lines (separated  here with a slash) they are related poetically. These lines use enjambment for the effect of the lines flowing into each other to make it seems like the sea. The first half flows smoothly, as does the second half, except for the final word. The letter â€Å"S† is used in both halves to bring them together – to remind the readers of Islands Man closeness to the sea. The letter â€Å"H† (â€Å"head†) is a break from the â€Å"S’s† and therefore the rhythm is lost. The third line (â€Å"to the sound of blue surf†) has alliteration of the letter â€Å"S†. The sound of this letter is very much like that of the waves to remind the reader of the sea. To insure that this comes across to the readers there is emphasis on these letters. There is also an emphasis on the word â€Å"head† here to make the readers realize that it is only in Island Man’s head, as he also realizes the truth. The fourth line uses two verbs, which have internal rhyme to make the line flow  easier (breaking and wombing). The first verb â€Å"breaking† suggests the repetitive and steady breaking of the waves on the Caribbean sands. More evidence of this meaning the waves is the fact that the line says â€Å"the steady breaking and wombing† which clearly illustrates the waves motion. The second verb â€Å"wombing† is derived from the word â€Å"womb†; therefore this connotes warmth, maternal love and family. Island Man would connect all of these with his home, and he would connect the first one in an emotional and physical sense. In this line the adverb â€Å"steady† is used to describe the verbs. Whilst other words could have been used to this effect I believe â€Å"steady† was chosen because the first letter is an â€Å"S†, which continues the alliteration from the previous lines – and reinforces the rhythm The first line of the next stanza â€Å"wild seabirds† may not seem to hold much information but it seems to be comparing London and the Caribbean by using the adjective â€Å"wild† which is a contrast to the Pigeons usually found in London. The second line of the second stanza is as follows – â€Å"and fishermen pushing out to sea†. Here we have alliteration of the letters â€Å"SH† in â€Å"fishermen†Ã‚  and â€Å"pushing† it is also mildly repeated in the word â€Å"sea† at the end of the sentence by using the letter â€Å"S†. Again, this suggests the sound of the sea There is a continuing of the alliteration of the letter â€Å"S† through onto the last line of this stanza with the words â€Å"sun surfacing†. The adverb used to illustrate the sun is an interesting one (â€Å"the sun surfacing defiantly†), it seems to suggest that Island Man does not want the sun to rise over his island home, as it is defying him. This is another way of showing Island Man’s reluctance to leave his past life behind, as he doesn’t want life to go on without him. This could also mean that the sun surfaces in London when he doesn’t want it to, as it awakes him from his dreams of his past life. There is also a rhyme at the end of this line with the end of the previous line – it is â€Å"sea† and â€Å"defiantly†. Rhyme creates harmony and a relaxed atmosphere; this reflects Island Man’s thoughts about the island. The next stanza has a situation where his memories, dreams and reality becomes entwined. There are a number of different possibilities for this stanza, and I believe the author did not make any of these possibilities singularly correct, but rather wanted the reader to guess. On its own the stanza reads as â€Å"from the east / of his small emerald island / he always comes back†. The obvious meaning of this is that in London (â€Å"the east†) he awakes from the dreams (â€Å"he always comes back†). This possibility is based on the reality, whilst if you pair it up with the last line of the previous stanza (â€Å"the sun surfacing defiantly†) it gives it a new meaning based more on his memories and dreams and then back to reality – â€Å"the sun surfacing defiantly / from the east / of his small emerald island / he always comes back†. This possibility tells of the sun surfacing to the east of the island, which are his memories and/or his dreams. The island is cleverly described as a small emerald in the second line of this stanza, this not only relates to its colour, a lush tropical green, but also its value. An emerald, although small is very valuable and precious, as the island is to Island Man. Before the writing continues there is a large gap, which I beielve illustrates the reluctance of Island Man in leaving his past behind, it also  shows that change will take time as the lines read as â€Å"he always comes back / groggily groggily†. The word â€Å"groggily† connotes a slow, sleepy movement, this is Island Man getting out of bed, which is a metaphor for his reluctance to leave his past behind. So as it takes time to get out of bed it takes time get on with his London life. Next the poem goes on to what Island Man comes back to – â€Å"Comes back to sands / of a grey metallic soar†. The first line is about Island Man coming back to a place of a â€Å"grey metallic soar† which is obviously London. Although there are only three words in the line they all connote a strong image of London. They seem to suggest a soaring of traffic (â€Å"soar†), a bleak landscape of buildings and a concrete jungle (â€Å"grey†) and more cars (â€Å"metallic†). It may seem that these are a strong contrast to the Caribbean, but they all have their similarities and connections, which Island Man can see, which maybe explains why he refers to it as â€Å"sands†. These similarities are sea birds rather than traffic (â€Å"soar†), jungles and trees rather than buildings (â€Å"grey†/green) and wood boats and houses rather than cars (â€Å"metallic†/wooden). The next line has the same gap that exists before the repetition of â€Å"groggily† earlier on in the poem. However this gap is more to do with acceptance rather than reluctance as Island Man realises he must face the reality. This makes sense as the line is † to the surge of wheels†. The word surge here is used as a contrast between the surge of wheels and the surge of the tropical waves, the shape of a wheel is also similar to that of a curling wave, and the repeating of the waves is similar to the turning of wheels. The line following this is â€Å"to a dull North Circular roar†. The North Circular is a road in London in the shape of circle, this is a contrast to the Island home of Island Man and the roar is a contrast of the traffic and the sea. Dull is also used to compare; as the Island Man views the Caribbean as being anything but dull, whilst he views London life as being dreary. The words â€Å"roar† and â€Å"soar† rhyme but in a different way to the previous rhyme, which seemed very smooth and seemed to flow easily, whilst this rhyme is  much more coarse. This is again a metaphor for how Island Man viewed the contrast between his Caribbean life and his London life. The final stanza of the poem begins with the repetition of the word â€Å"muffling†. This suggests that Island Man is covering his head with his pillows to drown out the sound of the traffic, as he wants to keep the sound of the waves in his head. Island Man tries to hide the fact that he is no longer at home from himself in order to feel some comfort. There is more evidence for this on the next line as he seeks comfort by pretending the crumples on his pillow are the waves of the sea. This is followed by the line â€Å"and island man heaves himself†. This is Island Man finally getting out of his bed to face the realities of his London life, and the verb â€Å"heaved† seems to refer back to the fishermen earlier. It is also a word, which connotes intense effort and energy, which again refers back to the reluctance of Island Man. The poem is finished with a single line on it’s own, this line is â€Å"Another London day† which tells the reader that Island Man now must accept his reality in London, although unwillingly. I personally enjoyed reading Island Man as it is very well written and the author has been very clever in disguising her message in a subtle way but still delivering the message is a powerful one. The poem also suggests the characters emotions in a realistic way using a large array of poetic devices, for instance I have never felt homesick, but thanks to the author I could sympathize for Island Man. Island Man is also a poem with many different layers to it – the poem can be viewed from many different angles to give a slightly differing meaning to it each time it is read – I personally enjoy poems like this as they tend to get better the more you read them as you reveal their different layers of meaning. A similar poem to â€Å"Island Man† is â€Å"The Fringe of The Sea†. This poem has many similarities, but also many differences to the previous poem. This poem is about a community of Island people and their feelings rather than about a  single man as in Island Man. Although Island Man himself was a representative of these people The Fringe Of The Sea is less personal than Island Man making it hard to connect with and feel for the characters. The main reason for this is that whilst Island Man deals with one person, The Fringe Of The Sea is written in first person plural (â€Å"We† and â€Å"Us† rather than â€Å"I†). This obviously distances you from the people, as you cannot get singular thoughts of a person. However it shows that these people all have the same/similar opinions, which shows that these people co-work, co-operate and live together in harmony. The main theme of this poem is co-working – it shows that all people who live upon small islands live in harmony with each other and nature and grow a mutual respect for both of them. Unlike the previous poem there are not many themes and many different ways to look at the poem, it has instead one strong view of the poem, which is enforced throughout. This poem is written in free verse, although mostly in stanzas of three or four lines – most lines are of a similar length, although a few aren’t. This is very different to the form and structure of Island Man, which has variable stanza and line lengths and with some lines with a large space before them and protruding out to the side of the poem. Similarly to Island Man however there is a shortage of capital letters – in both poems they are only used for pronouns or nouns (â€Å"North Circular† and â€Å"We†). The first stanza of the poem begins with the pronoun â€Å"We† showing that it is in first person plural narrative, which differs from Island Man’s third person narrative. There is also a repetition of â€Å"We† to emphasize the point and to emphasize its meaning. In the first stanza, there are a few similarities to the poem Island Man, here is the first stanza – â€Å"We do not like to awaken / far from the fringe of the sea / we who live upon small islands†. It is apparent immediately that once again the poem is about people who live upon a small island, although there is no information about its location – as there was in Island Man (in a parenthesis at the start of the poem). Another similarity is that the word â€Å"awaken† is used in this poem, and waking up is used as a strong metaphor and theme of Island Man,  these people obviously feel the same way as Island Man does about the sea – neither want to â€Å"awaken far from the fringe of the sea†. The second line of this stanza uses alliteration of the letter â€Å"F† (â€Å"far from the fringe of the sea†). This creates a soothing sound similar to the sea waves, as it is a soft sounding letter to pronounce. Enjambment is also used to recreate the flowing of the sea waves with the lines continuing into each other. Rhythm is used here to create a sense of harmony and peace – it is used in Island Man to the same effect. Both of these poetic forms were also used to a similar effect in Island Man – alliteration was used with the repetition of the letter â€Å"S† or sometimes â€Å"SH† to reproduce the sound of the sea. Enjambment is also used in the same way in Island Man. The metaphor â€Å"the fringe of the sea† is very effective as it gives you the image of the white surf on the waves, which is similar in shape to a fringe. In the final line of this stanza (â€Å"we who live upon small islands†) the geographical difference is noted by using the adjective â€Å"small† – this compares it with larger islands such as Britain, and therefo re London, so this is similarity to Island Man as well. The second stanza refers back to the idea of waking up with the lines â€Å"We like to rise up early /quick in the agile mornings† – this shows the opposite of Island Man’s attitude in the first poem; whilst Island Man was reluctant and unwilling these lines connote eagerness and energy. However this is almost certainly how Island Man must have felt on his island, as he has different feelings away from it, so they do resemble each other in that sense – showing both sides of waking up at home and away. Using the adjective â€Å"quick† to describe them rising in the mornings is another way of showing energy, which is a contrast to the lack of energy in Island Man. The adjective â€Å"agile† is used to the same effect to describe the morning upon the island. The next lines of the stanza reinforce the idea of being close to nature and the sea († and walk out only small distances / to look down on the water†). One apparent difference here is that in â€Å"Island Man† every line had a meaning and held lots of information, but in â€Å"The Fringe Of The Sea†, most lines are supportive of the previous and next lines. The present participle of â€Å"swaying† is used in the next stanza to show  ongoing activity and motion, these were also used in Island Man when he remembering his home (â€Å"fishermen pushing†). Next there is a list of what the sea offers to the people – â€Å"with songs, and tides, and endless boatways, and undulate patterns and moods†. This is not totally different from Island Man; there is a short list of what Island Man remembers from his island in the second stanza of the poem (â€Å"wild seabirds / and fishermen pushing out to sea / the sun surfacing defiantly†). The term â€Å"endless boatways† is an effective one, which connotes that the islanders use the sea in the same way we use roads. This is a contrast to modern/western life – which occur frequently in Island Man. Using the modifier â€Å"undulate† to describe the patterns of the waves portrays a strong image of their smooth continuous motion. There is no use of personification in the poem Island Man, but there is some use of it in The Fringe Of The Sea – the sea’s â€Å"moods† are referred to. Personifying the sea here connotes that they actually see the sea as a person, a part of the community, co-working with the islanders (providing food). The fourth stanza is as follows – â€Å"We want to be able to saunter beside it / slowpaced in burning sunlight / barearmed, barefoot, bareheaded,†). It begins once again by saying what they want to be able to do by the sea, which is to â€Å"saunter† – this is very different to the cars on the North Circular in Island Man. The word â€Å"slowpaced† also works to the same effect. Using alliteration of the letter â€Å"B† creates a relaxed atmosphere, to mimic the atmosphere of island life. Alliteration is used in Island Man to create the same effect. The first line of the next stanza reinforces the theme of being at one with nature – â€Å"and to stoop down to the shallows†. The rest of the stanza – â€Å"sifting the random water / between assaying fingers / like farmers do with soil,† uses a simile to compare island life with western life. It contrasts farmers with the island fishermen (fishermen are also noted in Island Man). This suggests that the island people view the sea as being their crop fields and soil as they depend on it just as much as farmers depend on their land for food. Both peoples (farmers and islanders), although they mostly live in different cultures, harvest in the same way – a strong similarity by use of a simile is not used in Island Man. Rather than powerful similes it gives  its message through many subtle metaphors. Respect it also suggested by this simile as they co-work together, which is a strong theme in the second poem. There is good use of the verb â€Å"assay ing† which contrasts farmers testing the land and the islanders testing the water to asses the quality. Here is the next stanza – â€Å"and to think of turquoise mackerel / turning with consummate grace, / sleek and decorous / and elegant in high chambers†. The readers are told that the though of the sea and it’s harvest is enough to make them happy – this relates back to Island Man as it was only his thoughts that kept him happy. Describing the fish as â€Å"turquoise mackerel† is another effective use of adjectives as it gives a strong image of perfect, delicious looking fish. Turquoise is also a valuable stone, which connotes that the islanders see the fish as being precious to them. This is also very similar to Island Man calling his home â€Å"his small emerald island† – both use precious stones to show both colour and value of an item (â€Å"emerald island† and â€Å"turquoise fish†). The rest of the stanza is about the similarity between the fish swimming and a sophisticated ballroom dance. The next three lines of the stanza use adjectives to describe the â€Å"turquoise fish† in a similar way that ballroom dancers can be described. These adjectives are â€Å"consummate†, â€Å"sleek†, â€Å"decorous† and â€Å"elegant† – all of which can be related to both fish swimming and sophisticated dancing, this shows that the islanders view the fish as being sophisticated and civilized and maybe as equals as they need them to survive, rather than dismissing them as nothing important as most modern/western people would nowadays. The â€Å"high blue chambers† in the final line of the stanza refers to the sea, which is similar to their dancing chamber. The next stanza is a short one once again reinforcing the fact that these people always want to be at one with the sea – they see it as their streets – â€Å"We want to be able to walk out into it†, their offices and workplaces – â€Å"to work in it† and to recreate in it – â€Å"dive and swim and play in it†. Once again this is a list similar to the one earlier in the poem – there is also a short list in Island Man. The following stanza is also a list of verbs, about the things these people  want to be able to do in the sea. The first two lines are a contrast to Island Man’s London life (â€Å"to row and sail / to pilot over it’s sandless highways†). The lines are about transport – compared to the â€Å"soaring† cars on the North Circular in Island Man. The third line (â€Å"and to hear†) shows that the sound of the sea is enough to make these people happy – this fits in well with Island Man as he hears the sea in his head, this is enough to make him happy. The line is a short one, with a simple meaning on it’s own to emphasize just how important the sound really is to these people and how it alone makes a large difference. This poetic form is also used in the poem Island Man in the first line (â€Å"Morning†) to strongly emphasize a single point. The final line of the stanza – â€Å"it’s call and murmurs wherever we may be† is linked by enjambment with the previous line. This is also similar to Island Man, where there are a number of lines using enjambment for effect. The line itself seems to resemble exactly how Island Man feels, which shows that the emotions of Island Man and these people are very real, as two different authors have given them exactly the same feelings and emotions. Island Man hears the sea’s call in his head and the soothing sounds and murmurs. The rest of line also fit’s in well with Island Man, as it is about the fact that location isn’t important to these people – â€Å"wherever we may be† broadens the horizons the poem as had up until now, it has all been â€Å"Us† and â€Å"We†, but now it has changed. There is no change like this in the poem Island Man because Island Man himself is a symbol of all these people. The final stanza of the poem – (â€Å"All who have lived upon small islands / want to sleep and awaken / close to the fringe of the sea†) begins by broadening its horizons once more. It is now totally inclusive of everybody who has lived upon small islands (â€Å"All who have lived†). The poem now speaks for not only this community, but also every single community like it that exists. Rather than using a subtle metaphor for this (like Island Man does) this poem just come out and says it – and it is believable as the whole community feels the same way, so why shouldn’t every other one? It also eases you into the situation by beginning to broaden its horizons in the previous stanza – nothing like this is used in Island Man. The rest of this stanza is merely a repetiton of the first stanza to bring everything back together and to reinforce the poem’s message. This does occur close to the end of Island Man  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ it says that â€Å"island man heaves himself†, which is referring back to the fishermen previously in the poem. The definitive finalizing of the poem is also used at the end of Island Man for the same purposes as it is used here in The Fringe Of The Sea. The Fringe Of The Sea is a poem I also enjoyed reading as the author uses a number of contrasts between modern/western life and island life which really makes you think and wonder which is truly better. This poem is trying to give a simple message telling us of how content these people are with their simple lives and I believe that this point is delivered well – you can really feel the emotion of these people in the poem without using too many adjectives, or even many words as it is a simple request which is repeated throughout the poem (all that â€Å"we† want is†¦). Out of the two poems I preferred Island Man, mainly for the reason that it stays as a good poem in my mind no matter how much I read it. Whilst The Fringe Of The Sea reveals its full meaning the first time around you need to read Island Man a few times to fully understand all of its meanings – I personally like this as it the mark of a good poet and it shows that lots of thought and effort have gone into the poem. For me it is the difference in depth that make Island Man the better poem of the two.

Psychology Development in Chine

History and Systems of psychology PSYC 331 Dr. Bihan Al Qaimari Midterm Paper â€Å"Development of Psychology in China† Name: Ahmad Shiber Student number: 1071843 Introduction: When we started this class, we started learning the history of psychology, its theories, and its development. I couldn’t help but notice that the course curriculum is focused on European and American psychologists and their theories, which gives us a very westernized view of psychology and the nature of humans and their humanity.Studying psychology from a western point of view also limits the horizons of applying psychology and how it explained since it will be connected to mainly western church ideologies and financial and political systems are in the west like capitalism and democracy. I developed an interest in far eastern cultures four years ago studying the common religions in that region basics of languages spoken there, and I even started studying the Japanese language as a second language .Thus, I was interested of how these cultures saw psychology and compare their psychological thinking with Greek and Islamic psychological thinking and philosophy which was covered in class. I was amazed by the sheer amount of knowledge these cultures had offered in psychology and I was disheartened on how it is almost never mentioned in psychology classes or when mentioned it gets marginalized. Of all the cultures that constitute the Far East, I chose China.In this paper I will discuss the development of psychology in this country from its historical roots till the modern day, along with all the ups and downs of this field. I hope to shed light on the amazing contributions to the psychology field in particular, and to humanity in general. Attachment: a brief description of Chinese culture of well being. The Historical Roots: Modern psychology was brought to China from the West in the late 1800s, but the study and discussion of psychological issues had a long history in ancient Chin a. Read also Memory – ForgettingEarly psychological thinking in China not only was contained in diverse philosophical, political, military, and other literature but was also expressed through various practices in education, medicine, and human resource management. The influence of Chinese culture on world psychology has been widely recognized in current literature in the field and is attracting more and more attention (Jing, 1994; Murphy & Kovach, 1972; Wang, 1993). In China a rich body of psychological thought existed in the writings of the ancient Chinese philosophers.One of the most important figures was Confucius (551-479 B. C. ) whose teaching has, for centuries, exerted a profound influence on the development of China's cultural history. Confucian thinking emphasized the discussion of human nature, education, human development, and interpersonal relationships. For example, when Confucius discussed human nature, he asserted that â€Å"human nature is the order of heavenâ₠¬  (Jing, 1994, p. 668). By this Confucius meant that our patterns of existence are determined by Nature or by God.He did not address this issue in order to differentiate whether human nature was good or evil but proposed it as a common heritage upon which personal and mental development could be based through education: â€Å"By nature close to each other, but through practice far from each other† (Analects 17:2, Dawson, 1993). This means that people are similar when they are born but that they become different as a result of social molding; hence the importance of learning. Confucius was a famous teacher as well as a philosopher; he advocated that all people should be educated, irrespective of their abilities.He categorized people into three types: superior, medium, and inferior and concluded that everyone should be educated according to their abilities. These ideas are in agreement with the modern idea of everyone's right to an education and the concept of individual diff erences and the need to provide education in a suitable form for all to benefit, whatever their abilities. With regard to human development, Confucius viewed this as a life-long process as stated in the summary of his own life:. At fifteen I set my mind on learning, at thirty I became firm in my purpose; at forty I was free from doubts; at fifty I came to know fate; t sixty I could tell truth from falsehood by listening to other people; at seventy I followed my heart's desire without trespassing the norm of conduct. (Analects 2:4; Tang, 1996). A distinctive feature of this outlook is an emphasis on the development of wisdom and social maturity at a later age. Contrary to some modern thinking that human development is primarily an early childhood process (as has been proposed by Freud or Piaget), Confucius gave new insight with the view that development is a life-long process. In addition to Confucianism, other Chinese philosophies such as Taoism and Zen Buddhism were also important. For instance, Chinese Taoist scholars considered that opposition exists everywhere in the universe and that the synthesis of contrary systems operates to form an integrated unity that is a manifestation of the power and operation of the Yang and the Yin, the alternating forces expressive of light and darkness, birth and decay, male and female. These powers, which in their combined operation form the Tao, the Way, the great principle of the universe, are the mainspring of every activity, the mechanism of constant change and balance, which maintains the harmony of the cosmos. (Fitzgerald, 1976, p. 220). According to Lao-tzu (570-490 B.C. ), the reputed founder of Taoism, nature keeps a proper balance in all its working. If any activity moves to an extreme in one direction, sooner or later a change occurs to swing it back toward the opposite. This thinking may have influenced Jungian psychology, for â€Å"Jung discovered the self from Eastern philosophy and characterized it ‘as a kind of compensation for the conflict between inside and outside † (Jung, as cited in Kuo, 1971, p. 97). In addition, recent findings indicate that the self-actualization theories of Rogers and Maslow bear certain similarities to concepts in Taoism and Zen Buddhism (e. . , Chang ; Page, 1991; Ma, 1990). The practice of naive psychology was widespread in ancient China, and many present-day psychology applications could trace their roots to thousands of years ago. For instance, in Medical Principles of the Yellow Emperor, the first Chinese encyclopedia of medicine, published about 2,000 years ago, links between brain pathology and psychological problems were described, and a bio-psycho-social model was the main approach to medical and mental treatment (Wang, 1993).Another famous ancient Chinese text, Sun-tzu's classic book The Art of War, was written 2,500 years ago. It is a treatise on strategies of warfare containing an analysis of human nature, organization, leadership, the effects of the environment, and the importance of information and may have influenced the development of modern organizational psychology. The most important contribution of Chinese culture to the application of psychology is that of mental testing. It is common to think of testing as both a recent and a Western development. The origins of testing, however, are neither recent nor Western.The roots of psychological testing can be traced back to the concepts and practices of ancient China for some 3,000 years (Anastasi, 1988; Kaplan & Saccuzzo, 1993). Various methods for measuring talent and behavior were popular, such as observing traits from behavioral changes, identifying intelligence by response speed, eliciting personality across situations, and measuring mental attributes through interviews (Lin, 1980). The purpose of all these tests was to allow the Chinese emperor to assess his officials' fitness for office. By the time of the Han Dynasty (206 B. C. to A. D. 20), the use of t est batteries (two or more tests used in conjunction) was quite common in the civil service examination system (Zhang, 1988) with essay writing and oral exams in topics such as civil law, military affairs, agriculture, revenue, and geography. Tests had become quite well developed by the time of the Ming Dynasty (A. D. 1368-1644). During this period, there was a national multi-stage testing program that involved local and regional testing centers equipped with special testing booths. Those who did well on the test at the local level went on to the provincial capital for more extensive essay examinations.After this second testing, those with the highest test scores went on to the nation's capital for a final round of examinations. Only those who passed this third set of tests were eligible for public office. It is probable that the Western world learned about these national testing programs through exposure to the Chinese during the 19th century. Reports by British missionaries and di plomats encouraged the British East India Company to copy the Chinese system in 1832 as a method for selecting employees for overseas duty.Testing programs worked well for the company, and the British government adopted a similar system of testing for its civil service in 1855. Later, French, German, and American governments in succession endorsed it, and the testing movement in the Western world has grown rapidly since then (Kaplan & Saccuzzo, 1993). Testing was also well developed in ancient Chinese folk culture. An article written by a scholar, Yen (531-590), indicated that, the so-called â€Å"testing the child at one year of age† was a popular custom in southern China.On a child's first birthday, he/she would be placed on a large table full of food, clothing, paper, pens, jewelry, toys, books with, in addition, an arrow and sword for the boys, and needle and thread for the girls. The baby was encouraged to crawl freely and pick up the item he or she liked best. By observ ing what the baby grasped first, the proud parents projected the baby's intelligence, personality characteristics and aptitude by the things taken from the table. This custom lasted until the 20th Century. (Zhang, 1988, p. 02). Although clearly not a test by modern standards, it does illustrate a willingness to assess individual differences by concrete means. Zhang (1988) also noted that Lin Xie, a well-known 6th century scholar, designed what appeared to be the first experimental psychological test in the world. He asked people to draw a square with one hand and at the same time draw a circle with the other. His aim was to show that, with interference from the attempt to do the second task, neither task could be done correctly.Interestingly, Binet in the 1890s developed a similar test as part of the early psychological work on the effect of distraction (internal and external) on mental tasks (Pillsbury, 1929; Woodworth & Marquis, 1949). Binet may have been aware of the Chinese hist ory. This review is only a brief discussion of the historical background of Chinese psychology. However, psychology in China did not develop into a systematic discipline, despite the fact that the concepts of psychology have deep roots in Chinese civilization dating back almost 2,500 years.Furthermore, few empirical studies have been done in this area of knowledge in China, compared with studies done in the Western world. Thus, Chinese psychology has lacked a scientific basis because of the belief that Chinese scholars should only concern themselves with â€Å"book learning, literature, history and poetry–but not with science† (Fitzgerald, 1976, p. 274). When Chinese intellectuals began the reform movement in the early 1900s, they promoted an uncompromising rejection of Chinese traditions (especially those with Confucian roots) and advocated total or whole-hearted Westernization, in terms of science.Chinese psychology became a graft product of Western and Soviet psycho logy (Barabanshchikova & Koltsova, 1989). Early Chinese psychologists had adopted the Western ideas of behaviorism, psychoanalysis, and gestalt psychology, and the works of Pavlov, Bekhterev, and Komilov were translated from the Russian. Nowadays, however, more and more scholars taking the cross-cultural view of psychology (e. g. , Matsumoto, 2000) have realized that it is not appropriate simply to apply Western theories to explain the behavior of the Chinese or any other cultural group.Although the collection process has not been fully carried out, some Chinese psychologists (such as Gao, 1986) have started their exploration of the old studies and literature to search for the roots of Chinese psychology. Those valuable assets of the old civilization, when thoroughly explored, may give us new insights into the understanding of contemporary psychology. For example, researchers are studying early writings on traditional Chinese medicine and translating their conclusions into testable hypotheses of therapeutic effectiveness (Lee & Hu, 1993; Li, Xu, & Kuang, 1988; Tseng, 1973).This kind of work is also significant in cross-cultural studies and has particular relevance in the Chinese context. Development of Modern Chinese Psychology: Chinese psychology began a long time ago, but the modern scientific method is only recent. However, the era of modern Chinese psychology commenced in the late 1800s with the dissemination of Western psychology in China along with other Western influences. Chinese students who had studied in the West brought back ideas fundamental to modern psychology and translated Western books.In 1889, Yan Yongjing translated a Japanese version of Joseph Haven's Mental Philosophy (1875), which was regarded as the first Western psychology book to be published in China (Kodama, 1991). Psychology as an independent scientific discipline was first taught in some Chinese pedagogical institutions at the turn of this century. The Chinese educational reformer , Cai Yuanpei, who studied psychology at Wilhelm Wundt's Laboratory in Leipzig and who later became president of Beijing University, set up the first psychology laboratory at Beijing University in 1917 (Jing, 1994).In 1920, the first psychology department was established in South Eastern University in Nanjing (Li, 1994). In August 1921, the Chinese Psychological Society was formally founded. Unfortunately, its activities were interrupted by the Sino-Japanese war. Meanwhile, some Chinese scholars finished their studies in Western universities and returned to China to teach and do research in psychology. They played important roles in laying the foundation for the development of modern Chinese psychology. One of the most widely known Chinese psychologists from that period was R. Y.Kuo, who went to the University of California at Berkeley in 1918 and returned to China in 1929. As a behaviorist, his major contributions were in the field of the developmental analysis of animal behavior a nd the nervous system (Brown, 1981). Another influential figure was P. L. Chen, known as the founder of Chinese industrial psychology, who carried out field studies in Chinese factories after studying under Charles Spearman of University College London. Later, Chen's study on the G factor was translated and noted as an achievement in the developing understanding of intelligence (Wang, 1993).Another was S. Pan, who obtained his Ph. D. in Chicago in 1927, having worked with Carr on the influence of context on learning and memory. He later became president of the Chinese Psychological Society when it was re-established in 1955 after the People's Republic of China was founded. In short, from the 1920s through the 1940s, Chinese psychology was oriented mainly toward Western psychology and in fact was not different from the latter. Experimental approaches were emphasized, and Chinese psychologists were strongly influenced by the schools of functionalism, behaviorism, and the Freudians.Psy chology was basically an imported product whose general development was slow because of the unstable social environment in China during this period. After the founding of the People's Republic in 1949, psychology was reestablished under the auspices of the Communist Party. The new psychology took Marxism-Leninism and Mao's thought as the basic philosophy underlying its psychological theory. For instance, Marxism's materialist dialectics saw psychology (apart from experimental psychology) as entirely hypothetical and, therefore, not materialist and not permitted.Although the Western psychology of the 1930s was well known, it was rejected after 1949 because of its capitalist nature. Chinese psychology during the mentioned time period was guided by the slogan â€Å"Learn from the Soviet Psychology† (Barabanshchikova ; Koltsova, 1989, p. 118), and books by Soviet psychologists (Pavlov, Luria, Sechenov, etc. ) were translated into Chinese; Chinese students and postgraduates began to study in Russia rather than in the United States (Barabanshchikova ; Koltsova). Soviet psychology focused on the relationship between psychology nd the workings of the central nervous system, especially as shown in the work of Pavlov with animals, whereas Western psychology with its emphasis on individual differences was seen as a â€Å"tool of the bourgeoisie,† which contradicted the Marxist doctrine that states that people are primarily shaped by their social class. Jing (1994) noted that as in the Soviet Union in the 1940s and in 1950s, there were no independent departments of psychology in Chinese universities. Psychology was a secondary discipline in the departments of philosophy or education. It was only 30 years later, after the Chinese Cultural Revolution, that independent departments of psychology were reestablished in Chinese universities). (p. 670). Psychology had a preliminary development in the 1950s and early 1960s. In 1958, the Institute of Psychology was se t up as a part of the Chinese Academy of Science, where, because it was classified as a science, its funding was more favorable than that of other social sciences. About half of the 3,000 Chinese psychologists then worked in normal universities or pedagogical institutes in the fields of developmental and educational psychology (Jing, 1994).Some basic psychological studies were also carried out on perception, conceptual development, memory, and physiological psychology. The publication of three important Chinese textbooks in the early 1960s reflected a significant development of teaching and research during that period: general psychology (Cao, 1963), educational psychology (Pan, 1964), and child psychology (Zhu, 1962). However, the development of psychology was not smooth because of the ebb and flow of political movements. Even though it is a science, psychology could be construed as an ideology and hence a threat to the doctrine promulgated by the ruling regime or by influential se gments of society,† noted Leung and Zhang (1995, p. 694). Jing (1994) gave an explanation for this statement. He described the 1958 campaign against the â€Å"bourgeois direction in psychology† that criticized the â€Å"globalization† and â€Å"abstractionism† of psychology. This criticism was aimed at basic research with controlled experiments. In China, confounding political matters with academic ones led to the suppression of certain subfields in psychology.For example, social psychology and psychological testing were abolished â€Å"on the grounds that the former ignored the class nature of social groups, and the latter stressed too heavily individual differences rather than social differences† (Jing, 1994, p. 671). The only social psychology articles then published were criticisms of the bourgeois and idealist values of Western psychology. As Brown (1983) noted, Western theories were viewed as a tool for exploiting the working class and a false bourgeois science, which contradicted the Marxist framework of historical materialism.Kuo (1971) gave some interesting examples of how Western-style psychological research was seen to be politically dominated. For example, Kretch and Crutchfield's proposed social psychology program for factory managers to help eliminate conflict between workers and factory owners was described as actually intended â€Å"to iron out the class struggle, to diminish the proletarian's fighting will for revolution, and to sacrifice the proletarian basic profits in order to meet the need of capitalists† (p. 100).For these reasons, between 1966 and 1976, during the period of the Cultural Revolution, psychology was attacked by the extreme leftist revolutionaries as a â€Å"bourgeois pseudo-science† and was uprooted completely as a scientific discipline. Leading psychologists were labelled as â€Å"reactionary academic authorities,† scientific research and teaching institutions were dis solved, and psychologists were dispatched to remote areas of the country to work on the farms. The disaster lasted until the termination of the Cultural Revolution in 1976. (Jing, 1994, p. 72). In a later article (1995) Jing commented that this was a â€Å"dark period† for psychology in China and lamented the â€Å"great price to be paid for political interference in science† (p. 719). Happily, Chinese economic reform launched an open-door policy to the outside world in the late 1970s, and psychology was rehabilitated as a scientific discipline. Both the Chinese Psychological Society (CPS) and Institute of Psychology have resumed their academic activities; research in, and application of, psychology is being carried out all over China.With increased international exchanges, new ideas and areas of research such as cognitive psychology and counseling psychology have become popular. For example major cities now have counseling telephone hot lines (Xu, Guo, Fang, & Yan, 19 94), many high schools have their own counselors, and cognitive behavior therapy is a popular new approach to psychiatric problems. Chinese counseling models have to adapt to the characteristics of Chinese clients and counselors (Wang, 1994). Many Chinese psychologists visited other countries, and psychologists from abroad visited China and lectured in China's universities.Thus began a more favorable environment for the present development of Chinese psychology. Wang (1993) gave a good picture of the current scene: By 1991, the CPS had more than 2,900 members, two thirds of whom were developmental and educational psychologists. The CPS has 11 special divisions of psychology, including educational, developmental, medical, general-experimental, industrial, sports, physiological, judicial psychology, and psychological measurement. Each province has its own psychological association such as counseling (Wang, 1993, p. 92).Because psychology restored its momentum in the late 1970s, Chines e psychologists have reached a consensus on building psychology with Chinese characteristics (Chen, 1993; Shi, 1989). Yue (1994) reflected on the need for Chinese psychologists to strengthen their theoretical roots and bind their work closely to life in China. Wang (1993) concluded that much recent Chinese psychological research has been closely linked with economic and social reform, technological developments, and applications of psychology (e. g. , the design of Chinese language computers, the effects of the single-child policy).Bond (1996) and the Chinese Culture Connection (1987) noted that Chinese society is still shaped by Confucian values such as filial piety and industriousness, the saving of face, and the networks of personal relationships. Even in 1922, Chinese psychologists were exhorted to unearth existing Chinese materials, investigate new materials from overseas, and based on these two sources, invent our own theories and experiments †¦ the content must be approp riate to the national situation, and the form, must insofar as is possible, be of a Chinese nature. Jing ; Fu, 1995, p. 723). In experimental psychology, the Chinese language with its ideographic characters has become a subject of great interest (see Bond, 1986, for some examples). Extensive studies are being carried out in this field, including ideographic and sound characteristics of Chinese characters; the relationship between Chinese languages and Western languages; the hemispheric laterality of information processing of the Chinese language; and reading and comprehension of the Chinese language.Because of the importance of the application of these studies to school education, artificial intelligence, and industrial technology, many Chinese psychologists are collaborating in their research efforts in the hope of finding some answers, such as how to simplify the typing of Chinese characters on computers (Tan ; Peng, 1991; Yu, Feng, ; Cao, 1990; Zhang ; Shu, 1989; Zhang, Zhang, ; Peng, 1990). Developmental psychology is another area of intensive study.There are 300 million children in China, and any new knowledge acquired in the field would have important implications for the education of this next generation (Jing, 1994). For example, Mei (1991) demonstrated that the remote rural minority people's tradition of keeping their babies propped up in sandbags for most of their first 6 months resulted in lower IQ scores up to the age of 16. Much has been published on concept development, language development, the development of thinking, personality, and moral development, gifted children, and slow learners (see Dong, 1989; Liu, 1982; Zhu & Lin, 1986).These findings have been applied to improve the teaching and testing of children, such as the development of the standardized Higher Education Entrance Examination. In addition, since the national family planning and birth control program was implemented in the mid-1980s the characteristics of the only-child policy h ave been a hot topic (Chen, 1985; Falbo & Poston, 1993; Jing, 1995). For example, Ying and Zhang (1992) found that rural Chinese still expected their children rather than the government to support them in their old age. This will clearly be a burden on a single child with four dependent grandparents.Psychologists are concerned with the school achievement and social development of these only children as well as the social psychological effects and personality problems that may be encountered in the future. Within this area, cross-cultural psychology studies among China's minority groups offer an important new prospect (Hong ; Wang, 1994; Xie, Zhang, Yu, ; Jui, 1993). In the field of medical and clinical psychology, besides the introduction of Western psychotherapeutic methods (behavior modification, group therapy, psychoanalysis, etc. ), the demonstration of the effectiveness of some traditional Chinese medical treatments (e. . , acupuncture, see Ng, 1999a) and therapies (e. g. , qig ong ; taichi, see Ng, 1999b) has been a significant development (San, 1990; Sun, 1984; Wang, 1979). Moreover, many psychologists are also involved in the process of modernization in industrial, military, and educational areas, playing important roles in policy making. For example, psychometricians helped to initiate the standardization of college entrance examinations. In personnel selection for the Air Force, psychologists are widely consulted and are actively participating in the design of selection procedures (Hao, Zhang, Zhang, ; Wang 1996).Industrial psychologists also make their contribution to the establishment of color standards of industrial illumination as well as to the developments of signs and symbols for technical products. The role of psychology has become increasingly prominent in China's rapid modernization and economic and social development. Disadvantageous Factors that May Impede the Development of Psychology: Although psychology is recognized by the Chinese gove rnment and is enjoying apparent prosperity at the moment, its future status is questionable.The development of psychology is contingent on economic growth. Compared with the other natural sciences (such as mathematics, physics, and chemistry), the development of psychology depends especially on the resources and prevailing intellectual practices of that country. It was reported in the mid-1980s that there were well over 60,000 psychologists who belonged to the American Psychological Association (Mays, Rubin, Sabourin, & Walker, 1996), whereas there were fewer than 3,000 registered members in the Chinese Psychological Society by 1991 (Wang, 1993).The ratio of psychologists to the general population is higher in developed countries than in developing countries. China has fewer than 2 psychologists for every million people (Jing & Fu, 1995). A developing country has to provide for its people's basic needs–food, shelter, health–before it can afford to provide for their â⠂¬Å"higher† psychological needs. When a country is underdeveloped, the more important problems of developing industry, commerce, and agriculture receive more attention because of the need to improve basic living conditions for everyone.In China today, with its economic pressures and its huge population problem, the further development of psychology cannot be seen as a top national priority. However, the Chinese government has begun to recognize that economic progress ultimately depends on the talents of the managers and workers and now sees the value of investing in modern management selection and training (e. g. , the setting up in 1999 of the Beijing Senior Management Selection Centre; personal communication, Gu Xiang Dong, January, 1999). Because the Chinese Government employs almost all the psychologists in the country, the future of the profession depends n its support (Jing ; Fu, 1995). In practical terms, lack of funding in developing countries means that psychologists cannot afford to attend international conferences, buy expensive books and journals, or experiment with highly technical equipment. Jing and Fu noted,. As China's market-oriented reform continues, people in academic circles are adjusting their ways of making a living. The Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), the main organizational body of scientific research in China, started its reform in the middle 1980s to satisfy the market need for applied technology. p. 721). In 1993, the CAS elected to move 70% of its staff into research related to economic development and thus more than 50,000 people began to conduct research in areas relevant to the market economy (Wang, 1995). It is also known that a further 10,000 of the original CAS staff have become businessmen or managers as a result of the expansion of private business enterprises (Jing & Fu, 1995). Budgetary difficulties are a more immediate problem for reform. In developed countries, psychology can rely on private funding.For example , the ratio of private to government funding in the United States was as high as 1 to 10 in 1990 (see Rosenzweig, 1992), whereas in China there is little private funding to which psychologists can turn. If such funding does exist, psychology is rarely on the list for support. The lack of funding for research has had an adverse impact on basic research. In an analysis of 2,274 studies between 1979 and 1988 in developmental and educational psychology involving 362,665 participants, Shi (1990) found that 48. 9% of the studies were applied research whereas only 8% were described as basic research. The rest were more or less repetitions or adaptations of previous studies or instruments. ) Psychologists in China are predominantly concerned with applied problems, and research that addresses economic and social problems. This situation was aptly described by Long (1987): â€Å"The pressing need †¦ was a technocrat in a factory, not a rat in a Skinner box† (p. 232). An applied or ientation is understandable in the light of the heavy emphasis placed on economic development. It may be expected that psychology will play an important role in the attainment of China's present goal to modernize industry, agriculture, science, and technology.The main problems for Chinese psychologists are how to help the nation accomplish these important tasks with minimal funding and lack of facilities (Jing ; Fu, 1995). The development of psychology is based on having a sufficient number of people with advanced training, and universities are the main source of training for psychologists. Bachelor degree courses in psychology are similar to those in the United States, but Chinese lecturers have far heavier teaching commitments than their Western counterparts, and they are often required to teach topics well outside their specialist areas.The lack of educational funding also limits access to leading journals and books in the field. Universities in China can afford to subscribe to o nly a few American and European journals, and most newly published English language books are not available in the library or if they are, their use may be restricted. Thus â€Å"psychological knowledge transmitted to China falls behind the times and is less sophisticated than that in the West† (Jing ; Fu, 1995, p. 725).At present, there are only six psychology departments and four psychology institutions among all the institutions of higher education, although all normal universities and teachers' colleges have psychology curricula and established psychology teaching and research groups. This provision is clearly inadequate for future needs. In addition, students often teach in the universities in which they received their degree, leading to a restricted perspective of the discipline. To a certain extent, China must depend on the developed world for the training of its psychologists (Jing & Fu, 1995).This dependence comes through the importation of foreign experts as well as the training abroad of Chinese psychologists at the postgraduate level and the subsequent brain drain, as many of the latter do not return to China. Another serious problem affecting the development of psychology is that there are no specific career paths for students who major in psychology. There is no organized postgraduate professional psychology training, and psychology graduates are often trapped in low-income jobs. Thus, uncertain career prospects have turned away many talented students.Unfortunately many students who chose psychology as a major have turned to unrelated professions on graduation. Future Perspective The field of psychology has a long road to travel before it will reach its maturity in China. Despite the difficulties mentioned here, recent developments have revealed some directions for the future. As we have seen, the development of Chinese psychology is closely linked with the social environment and with government policy, such as the influence of the family planning program and the open door policy. This link will continue and will orient most psychological research toward practical applications.Given the poor resources in research and the limited number of psychologists, the nationwide and collaborative approach will greatly facilitate research, teaching, and the practical application of psychology. Chinese psychology has attracted tremendous interest from all over the world in recent years. The reason for this sinophilia (Leung & Zhang, 1995, p. 696) â€Å"is because of the increasing importance of China world-wide, both politically and economically. † In the next few years, more emphasis will be put on the mutual communication and exchange of ideas with the rest of the world.Chinese psychology will certainly benefit from learning from Western advanced psychology. However, to interpret the mental phenomena and behavior of the Chinese people, attention must also be focused on the theoretical construction of China's ancient psyc hological heritage traced through traditional Chinese culture. It may be that this will eventually reflect Fairbank's view (1992, p. 258) when he stated, â€Å"Chinese learning for the substance the essential principles and Western learning for function the practical applications. 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